Skip to main content
Web of Medicine
Urology›Condition·Updated Jul 18, 2026·v1

Nephrolithiasis

Nephrolithiasis is a common, recurrent condition driven by urinary supersaturation and metabolic imbalances. Diagnosis relies on non-contrast CT, while management ranges from medical expulsive therapy for small stones to endoscopic surgery (URS, PCNL) for larger burdens. Prevention via high fluid intake and metabolic correction is essential to reduce the high rate of recurrence.

High Evidence226 references·865 words·4 min read·v1
urologynephrologyrenal-calculimetabolic-disease
On this page

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceKetorolac (acute pain); Tamsulosin (expulsive therapy)
AltAlternativesPotassium citrate (prevention); Chlorthalidone (hypercalciuria)
⊘AvoidNon-dihydropyridine CCBs (not for MET); Routine opioids (avoid if possible)
DxTest of choiceNon-contrast CT Abdomen/Pelvis (Adults); Ultrasound (Pediatrics/Pregnancy)
ScKey scoreCLAD-MB score (predicts surgical urgency)
→When to referStones > 10 mm, obstructing stones with fever, solitary kidney, or failed medical management.
Nephrolithiasis is a chronic metabolic disease; acute management focuses on decompression and stone clearance, while long-term care requires aggressive hydration and metabolic workup.
Nephrolithiasis is a systemic inflammatory disorder characterized by mineral deposits in the renal collecting system [1, 8]. It is increasingly linked to chronic kidney disease and metabolic syndrome [1, 52]. Management requires balancing acute relief of obstruction with long-term metabolic prevention [1, 10]. This reference prioritizes actionable surgical thresholds, diagnostic gold standards, and evidence-based medical prevention strategies for the bedside clinician.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Nephrolithiasis, the formation of renal calculi, affects nearly 1 in 11 individuals in the U.S., with a rising pediatric incidence of 6% to 10% annually and a high 5-year recurrence rate approaching 50%.
  • •The Randall’s plaque hypothesis serves as the central pathophysiologic paradigm for idiopathic calcium oxalate stones, where interstitial calcium phosphate deposits in the thin loops of Henle erode through the urothelium to serve as a nidus for crystal growth.
  • •Systemic metabolic health is a primary driver of lithogenesis; metabolic syndrome (OR 1.30), hypertension, and diabetes are independent risk factors, while malabsorptive states like or bariatric surgery drive enteric .
  • •Stone composition dictates long-term management: calcium oxalate and phosphate are most common (~80%), followed by uric acid (linked to low urine pH), struvite (infection-related), and rare genetic variants like cystine.
  • •Prognostic stakes are high in specific phenotypes; staghorn calculi filling the renal pelvis are associated with chronic inflammation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and progressive renal fibrosis if left untreated.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect nephrolithiasis in patients presenting with sudden, severe, unilateral flank pain (renal colic) that often radiates to the groin, frequently accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and restlessness.
  • •Ask about a personal or family history of stones, recent dietary changes, fluid intake habits, and history of urinary tract infections or malabsorptive bowel disease.
  • •Examine for costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness and assess vital signs for fever or tachycardia, which may signal life-threatening obstructive pyelonephritis.
  • •Order a non-contrast CT of the abdomen and pelvis (NCCT) as the gold-standard diagnostic test to determine stone size, location, and density (Hounsfield units).
  • •Utilize renal as the mandatory first-line imaging in pediatric and pregnant patients to minimize ionizing radiation, though it may overestimate stone size and has lower sensitivity (54%) than CT.
  • •Obtain a urinalysis to screen for microscopic hematuria (present in 70-90% of cases), nitrites (suggesting infection), and urine pH (pH < 5.5 suggests uric acid; pH > 7.2 suggests struvite).
  • •Assess renal function with serum creatinine and screen for with serum calcium levels in all first-time stone formers.
  • •Perform a 24-hour urine collection (measuring volume, calcium, oxalate, citrate, and sodium) in recurrent or high-risk formers to identify modifiable metabolic drivers.
  • •Identify 'red flag' features requiring urgent intervention: fever, solitary kidney with obstruction, bilateral obstruction, or intractable pain/emesis preventing oral hydration.

Management

  • •Administer 30 mg IV or other as first-line analgesia; they are non-inferior to opioids and reduce the risk of unplanned ER visits for stent-related symptoms.
  • •Initiate medical expulsive therapy (MET) with 0.4 mg daily for distal ureteral stones between 5 mm and 10 mm to facilitate spontaneous passage.
  • •Decompress the collecting system immediately via or if the patient has an obstructed, infected kidney; this is a surgical emergency with a 20% mortality rate if delayed.
  • •Select (ESWL) or (URS) for most symptomatic stones < 20 mm; URS generally offers higher stone-free rates in a single session.
  • •Perform (PCNL) as the gold standard for large stone burdens (> 20 mm) or complex staghorn calculi.
  • •Utilize (30-60 mEq/day in divided doses) for patients with hypocitraturia or uric acid stones to alkalinize the urine and inhibit crystal aggregation.
  • •Consider thiazide-type diuretics like 25 mg daily to reduce urinary calcium excretion in patients with recurrent calcium stones and hypercalciuria.
  • •Prescribe 15 mg/kg/day for the management of refractory struvite (infection) stones, though monitor closely for adverse effects like tremulousness.
  • •Mandate high fluid intake to achieve a target urine output of > 2.5 L/day, which reduces recurrence risk by approximately 60%.
  • •Refer to a urologist for any stone > 10 mm, failed trial of spontaneous passage, or stones in patients with solitary kidneys or complex anatomy.
  • •Monitor residual fragments > 4 mm closely, as they have an 88% progression rate and frequently require secondary intervention.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •Randall's Plaque, The subepithelial calcium phosphate nidus on the renal papilla where calcium oxalate stones originate.
  • •Struvite Stones, Composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate; caused by urease-producing bacteria (e.g., Proteus, Klebsiella).
  • •Uric Acid Stones, Radiolucent on X-ray but visible on CT; treated with urinary alkalinization (target pH 6.5-7.0).
  • •Cystinuria, Genetic defect in COLA transporter (Cystine, Ornithine, Lysine, Arginine); stones are hexagonal and 'wax-like'.
  • •Indication for Surgery, Stones > 10 mm rarely pass spontaneously; stones < 5 mm pass in ~80% of cases.
  • •Infected Obstruction, A surgical emergency requiring immediate drainage (stent or nephrostomy), NOT definitive lithotripsy.
  • •Thiazide Mechanism, Increases distal convoluted tubule calcium reabsorption, thereby lowering urinary calcium levels.
  • •Enteric Hyperoxaluria, Seen in Crohn's/Bariatric surgery; fat malabsorption leads to calcium binding with fats, leaving free oxalate for absorption.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    Gambaro G, Croppi E, Coe F et al.. “Metabolic diagnosis and medical prevention of calcium nephrolithiasis and its systemic manifestations: a consensus statement.” Journal of nephrology (2016). PMID: 27456839 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  2. [2]

    Elhaie M, Koozari A, Albeshan SM et al.. “Applications of artificial intelligence algorithms in ultrasound-based kidney stone detection, classification, prediction, and management: a systematic review.” Abdominal radiology (New York) (2026). PMID: 41801379 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature, Diagnosis & Workup, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  3. [3]

    Arroyave JS, Restrepo M, Cohen D et al.. “Appraisal of Spanish-language online patient education resources for kidney stones.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 40259134 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  4. [4]

    Szydełko T, Kasprzak J, Apoznański W et al.. “Clavien classification of complications after 150 laparoscopic pyeloplasties.” Urology (2011). PMID: 21316094 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature, Complications
  5. [5]

    Li KD, Pearce RJ, Sui W et al.. “Renal Autotransplantation: Association Between Preoperative Disease Duration and Surgical Outcomes.” Urology (2024). PMID: 38942394 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  6. [6]

    Hein S, Schoenthaler M, Wilhelm K et al.. “Ultralow Radiation Exposure During Flexible Ureteroscopy in Patients With Nephrolithiasis-How Far Can We Go?” Urology (2017). PMID: 28648966 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  7. [7]

    Lu S, Cottone CM, Yoon R et al.. “Endockscope: A Disruptive Endoscopic Technology.” Journal of endourology (2019). PMID: 31195831 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  8. [8]

    Borofsky MS, Dauw CA, Cohen A et al.. “Integration and utilization of modern technologies in nephrolithiasis research.” Nature reviews. Urology (2016). PMID: 27549355 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Classification & Nomenclature
  9. [9]

    Pearle MS, Matlaga BR, Antonelli JA et al.. “Surgical Management of Kidney and Ureteral Stones: AUA Guideline (2026). Part III: Treatment of Patients With Kidney and/or Ureteral Stones and Future Directions.” The Journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41263325 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  10. [10]

    Pearle MS, Matlaga BR, Antonelli JA et al.. “Surgical Management of Kidney and Ureteral Stones: AUA Guideline (2026) Part I: Evaluation and Treatment of Patients With Kidney and/or Ureteral Stones.” The Journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41263323 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  11. [11]

    Pearle MS, Matlaga BR, Antonelli JA et al.. “Surgical Management of Kidney and Ureteral Stones: AUA Guideline (2026). Part II: Evaluation and Treatment of Patients With Kidney and/or Ureteral Stones.” The Journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41263322 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  12. [12]

    Robinson MR, Norris RD, Sur RL et al.. “Urolithiasis: not just a 2-legged animal disease.” The Journal of urology (2007). PMID: 17997446 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  13. [13]

    Pais VM, Smith RE, Stedina EA et al.. “Does Omission of Ureteral Stents Increase Risk of Unplanned Return Visit? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The Journal of urology (2016). PMID: 27287523 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Clinical Presentation
  14. [14]

    Tuo X, Ma Y, Ma Y et al.. “Intervention versus observation for asymptomatic kidney stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 42289039 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  15. [15]

    Barghouthy Y, Corrales M, Doizi S et al.. “Tea and coffee consumption and pathophysiology related to kidney stone formation: a systematic review.” World journal of urology (2020). PMID: 33052484 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  16. [16]

    Vezzoli G, Soldati L, Gambaro G. “Update on primary hypercalciuria from a genetic perspective.” The Journal of urology (2008). PMID: 18343451 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  17. [17]

    Su B, Ren Y, Yao W et al.. “Mitochondrial dysfunction and NLRP3 inflammasome: key players in kidney stone formation.” BJU international (2024). PMID: 38967108 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, History and Evolution of Treatment
  18. [18]

    Watson G, Payne SR, Kunitsky K et al.. “Stone disease in low- and middle-income countries: could augmented reality have a role in its management?” BJU international (2022). PMID: 35993671 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  19. [19]

    Bhojani N, Koo KC, Bensaadi K et al.. “Retrospective first-in-human use of the LithoVue™ Elite ureteroscope to measure intrarenal pressure.” BJU international (2023). PMID: 37667553 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  20. [20]

    Baccala A, Lee U, Hegarty N et al.. “Laparoscopic partial nephrectomy for tumour in the presence of nephrolithiasis or pelvi-ureteric junction obstruction.” BJU international (2008). PMID: 18990171 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  21. [21]

    Boonla C, Hunapathed C, Bovornpadungkitti S et al.. “Messenger RNA expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and interleukin-6 in stone-containing kidneys.” BJU international (2008). PMID: 18241247 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  22. [22]

    Miller NL, Williams JC, Evan AP et al.. “In idiopathic calcium oxalate stone-formers, unattached stones show evidence of having originated as attached stones on Randall's plaque.” BJU international (2009). PMID: 19549258 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  23. [23]

    Moe OW. “Kidney stones: pathophysiology and medical management.” Lancet (London, England) (2006). PMID: 16443041 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  24. [24]

    Chait AR, Hassig S, Cubillos J et al.. “Cystinuria Complicated by Anuria From Bilateral Obstructing Stones Requiring Bilateral Mini Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy in a 22-Month-Old.” Urology (2024). PMID: 38281667 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Clinical Presentation, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  25. [25]

    Beland LE, Henry MA, Solomon T et al.. “Obstructing Nephrolithiasis in an 84-year-old Patient With a Diaphragmatic Herniated Ureter.” Urology (2018). PMID: 30472257 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  26. [26]

    Scotland KB, Kroczak T, Pace KT et al.. “Stone technology: intracorporeal lithotripters.” World journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28608192 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  27. [27]

    Ergül RB, Ozervarli MF, Oba KC et al.. “Urinary tract anomalies and their role in pediatric stone formation.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41083800 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  28. [28]

    İbis MA, Oktar A, Gokce MI. “Dietary advice for patients with bowel-related conditions and malabsorption.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 36648528 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  29. [29]

    Policastro C, Dispagna M, Smith G et al.. “Factors associated with unplanned clinical encounters for ureteral stent-related symptoms.” World journal of urology (2024). PMID: 38324162 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism, Clinical Presentation, Acute Management & Decompression, History and Evolution of Treatment
  30. [30]

    Tasca A, Dalle Carbonare L, Nigro F et al.. “Bone disease in patients with primary hypercalciuria and calcium nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2009). PMID: 19428073 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  31. [31]

    Cohen AJ, Adamsky MA, Nottingham CU et al.. “Impact of Statin Intake on Kidney Stone Formation.” Urology (2018). PMID: 29421299 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  32. [32]

    Yang Y, Wang Q, Xun Y et al.. “The Preliminary Exploration of What Role miRNAs Derived From Urinary Exosomes Play in Kidney Stone Formation.” Urology (2022). PMID: 35636636 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  33. [33]

    Cobb KD, Gomella PT, DiBianco JM et al.. “Are Emergently Placed Nephrostomy Tubes Suitable for Subsequent Percutaneous Endoscopic Renal Surgery?” Urology (2019). PMID: 30658069 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  34. [34]

    Turan I, Atar M, Eltan M et al.. “Targeting Hypercalciuria in SLC34A1-Related Disorders: Impact of Oral Phosphate Therapy and Novel Genetic Insights in Pediatric Case Series.” Calcified tissue international (2026). PMID: 41543768 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  35. [35]

    Chen H, Huang Z, Chen G et al.. “Case Report: Maternal near-miss-recovery from refractory septic shock with multiple organ dysfunction secondary to acute pyelonephritis in pregnancy.” Frontiers in medicine (2025). PMID: 41451099 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  36. [36]

    Kalik SA, Abate EG, Cusano NE. “Normocalcemic Primary Hyperparathyroidism: An Evolving Understanding.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2026). PMID: 42419589 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  37. [37]

    Rattananinsruang P, Peerapen P, Phuangkham S et al.. “Unveiling potential natural promoters of calcium oxalate kidney stones in the urine via anion-exchange chromatography, crystal assays, and proteomics.” Molecular and cellular biochemistry (2026). PMID: 42418121 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  38. [38]

    Lahane GP, Bhat A, Kulkarni O et al.. “Nesfatin-1 mitigates calcium oxalate nephropathy in mice through GPR12 receptor modulation and PKCα/NADPH oxidase pathway inhibition.” Life sciences (2026). PMID: 42335987 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology & Mechanism
  39. [39]

    Sur RL, Shore N, L'Esperance J et al.. “Silodosin to facilitate passage of ureteral stones: a multi-institutional, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial.” European urology (2014). PMID: 25465978 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis & Natural History
  40. [40]

    Donaldson JF, Lardas M, Scrimgeour D et al.. “Systematic review and meta-analysis of the clinical effectiveness of shock wave lithotripsy, retrograde intrarenal surgery, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy for lower-pole renal stones.” European urology (2014). PMID: 25449204 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Prognosis & Natural History
  41. [41]

    Dhayat NA, Bonny O, Roth B et al.. “Hydrochlorothiazide and Prevention of Kidney-Stone Recurrence.” The New England journal of medicine (2023). PMID: 36856614 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  42. [42]

    Smith-Bindman R, Aubin C, Bailitz J et al.. “Ultrasonography versus computed tomography for suspected nephrolithiasis.” The New England journal of medicine (2014). PMID: 25229916 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment
  43. [43]

    Tozsin A, Akdere H, Guven S et al.. “A systematic review on urolithiasis in children with neurological disorders.” World journal of urology (2024). PMID: 39522107 ↗

    L3SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  44. [44]

    Suarez Arbelaez MC, Monshine J, Porto JG et al.. “The emerging role of the urinary microbiome in benign noninfectious urological conditions: an up-to-date systematic review.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 37737900 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Complications
  45. [45]

    Policastro LJ, Saggi SJ, Goldfarb DS et al.. “Personalized Intervention in Monogenic Stone Formers.” The Journal of urology (2017). PMID: 29061541 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  46. [46]

    Shoag JE, Patel N, Posada L et al.. “Kidney Stones and Risk of Narcotic Use.” The Journal of urology (2019). PMID: 30829133 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  47. [47]

    Tasian GE, Copelovitch L. “Evaluation and medical management of kidney stones in children.” The Journal of urology (2014). PMID: 24960469 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  48. [48]

    Tasian GE, Kabarriti AE, Kalmus A et al.. “Kidney Stone Recurrence among Children and Adolescents.” The Journal of urology (2016). PMID: 27521691 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Complications, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  49. [49]

    Shoag J, Halpern J, Goldfarb DS et al.. “Risk of chronic and end stage kidney disease in patients with nephrolithiasis.” The Journal of urology (2014). PMID: 24929140 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  50. [50]

    Askeland EJ, Arlen AM, Erickson BA et al.. “Urological manifestations of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.” The Journal of urology (2013). PMID: 23357214 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  51. [51]

    Fankhauser CD, Kranzbühler B, Poyet C et al.. “Long-term Adverse Effects of Extracorporeal Shock-wave Lithotripsy for Nephrolithiasis and Ureterolithiasis: A Systematic Review.” Urology (2015). PMID: 25917723 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  52. [52]

    Shojaei-Zarghani S, Safarpour AR, Askari H et al.. “Metabolic Syndrome and Nephrolithiasis; A Cross Sectional Population-based Study on the Baseline Data of the PERSIAN Kavar Cohort Study.” Urology (2022). PMID: 36435345 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  53. [53]

    Hsi RS, Kabagambe EK, Shu X et al.. “Race- and Sex-related Differences in Nephrolithiasis Risk Among Blacks and Whites in the Southern Community Cohort Study.” Urology (2018). PMID: 29753847 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  54. [54]

    Huang MM, Winoker JS, Allaf ME et al.. “Evidence-based quality and accuracy of YouTube videos about nephrolithiasis.” BJU international (2020). PMID: 32805761 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation
  55. [55]

    Ganesan V, Chen WM, Jain R et al.. “Multiple sclerosis and nephrolithiasis: a matched-case comparative study.” BJU international (2017). PMID: 28220601 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment
  56. [56]

    Bagrodia A, Malcolm JB, Diblasio CJ et al.. “Variation in the incidence of and risk factors for the development of nephrolithiasis after radical or partial nephrectomy.” BJU international (2010). PMID: 20156212 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  57. [57]

    Chung SD, Liu SP, Keller JJ et al.. “Urinary calculi and an increased risk of stroke: a population-based follow-up study.” BJU international (2012). PMID: 22583934 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  58. [58]

    Lotan Y, Buendia Jiménez I, Lenoir-Wijnkoop I et al.. “Primary prevention of nephrolithiasis is cost-effective for a national healthcare system.” BJU international (2012). PMID: 22686216 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment, Special Populations & Pregnancy, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  59. [59]

    Eisner BH, Sheth S, Herrick B et al.. “The effects of ambient temperature, humidity and season of year on urine composition in patients with nephrolithiasis.” BJU international (2012). PMID: 22578009 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  60. [60]

    Alhefnawy MA, Selmy GI, Salah E et al.. “Mini-Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy vs Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy for Management of Renal Stones in Pediatric Age Group Less Than 6 Years with Renal Stones Less Than 20 mm. A Prospective, Randomized Trial.” Journal of endourology (2026). PMID: 41814636 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  61. [61]

    Ticinesi A, Nouvenne A, Ferraro PM et al.. “Idiopathic Calcium Nephrolithiasis and Hypovitaminosis D: A Case-control Study.” Urology (2015). PMID: 26494294 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment
  62. [62]

    Kern A, Grimsby G, Mayo H et al.. “Medical and dietary interventions for preventing recurrent urinary stones in children.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2017). PMID: 29117629 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  63. [63]

    Vosoughi F, Nikeghbali G, Yazdanmehr A et al.. “Lower Limb Fractures in Primary Hyperparathyroidism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Incidence, Biochemical Risk Factors, and Surgical Management.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2026). PMID: 42413661 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  64. [64]

    Yaseen T, Afzal MU, Alhamaidah MA et al.. “Pooled frequency of ceftriaxone-induced urolithiasis in pediatric patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Pediatric nephrology (Berlin, Germany) (2026). PMID: 42262580 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  65. [65]

    Villanueva-Congote J, Marin-Urrego JC, Bakbak H et al.. “Association Between Ambient Temperature and Urolithiasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Current urology reports (2026). PMID: 42176144 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression
  66. [66]

    Kim SJ, Mock S, Stock JA. “Cystine nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2013). PMID: 23688378 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  67. [67]

    Li Z, Liu Y, Xu K et al.. “Association between oxidative balance score, genetic susceptibility and nephrolithiasis: a cohort study based on the UK Biobank.” European journal of nutrition (2026). PMID: 42371152 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  68. [68]

    Levin Iaina N, Elshami H, Asali M. “Risk Factors and Prediction of Acute Kidney Injury in Hospitalized Urology Patients: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 42123226 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  69. [69]

    Kasabwala K, Borofsky M, Grove S et al.. “Association of stone surgery with patient-reported complications after spinal cord injury.” Neurourology and urodynamics (2022). PMID: 35114016 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  70. [70]

    Sorokin I, Mamoulakis C, Miyazawa K et al.. “Epidemiology of stone disease across the world.” World journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28213860 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  71. [71]

    De Coninck V, Keller EX, Somani B et al.. “Complications of ureteroscopy: a complete overview.” World journal of urology (2019). PMID: 31748953 ↗

    L1REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  72. [72]

    Canvasser NE, Alken P, Lipkin M et al.. “The economics of stone disease.” World journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28108799 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression
  73. [73]

    He H, Lei X, Zou X et al.. “Unravelling new mechanisms of occurrence and recurrence in calcium nephrolithiasis: the role of epigenetics.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 41944902 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology & Risk Factors
  74. [74]

    Wiseman O, Ventimiglia E, Doizi S et al.. “Effects of Silicone Hydrocoated Double Loop Ureteral Stent on Symptoms and Quality of Life in Patients Undergoing Flexible Ureteroscopy for Kidney Stone: A Randomized Multicenter Clinical Study.” The Journal of urology (2020). PMID: 32364838 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Acute Management & Decompression
  75. [75]

    Sivalingam S, Streeper NM, Sehgal PD et al.. “Does Combination Therapy with Tamsulosin and Tolterodine Improve Ureteral Stent Discomfort Compared with Tamsulosin Alone? A Double-Blind, Randomized, Controlled Trial.” The Journal of urology (2015). PMID: 26393904 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  76. [76]

    Wood LN, Markowitz MA, Parameshwar PS et al.. “Is it Safe to Reduce Water Intake in the Overactive Bladder Population? A Systematic Review.” The Journal of urology (2018). PMID: 29499207 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  77. [77]

    Lovegrove CE, Geraghty RM, Yang B et al.. “Natural history of small asymptomatic kidney and residual stones over a long-term follow-up: systematic review over 25 years.” BJU international (2021). PMID: 34157218 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis & Workup, Acute Management & Decompression, History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  78. [78]

    Syed JS, Khan A, Van-Ryn MG et al.. “Toradol to Reduce Ureteroscopy Symptoms Trial (TRUST).” Urology (2022). PMID: 35314184 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  79. [79]

    Bhojani N, Wollin DA, El Tayeb MM et al.. “Prospective Multicenter Evaluation of Pain Before and After Removal of Nonobstructing Renal Calculi: A CoRE Initiative.” The Journal of urology (2023). PMID: 38100842 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  80. [80]

    Aksenov LI, Fairchild RJ, Kaplan SJ et al.. “Behavioral Economics in Urology: A Scoping Review.” The Journal of urology (2022). PMID: 35344397 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Presentation, Complications
  81. [81]

    Haberal HB, Tonyali S, Piana A et al.. “Current Perspectives on Endourological Ex Vivo Stone Interventions in Kidney Transplantation: A Systematic Review.” Urology (2024). PMID: 38878828 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Prognosis & Natural History
  82. [82]

    Carvalho M, Martin RL, Passos RC et al.. “Nephrectomy as a cause of chronic kidney disease in the treatment of urolithiasis: a case-control study.” World journal of urology (2012). PMID: 22373698 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Clinical Presentation, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  83. [83]

    Umekawa T, Iguchi M, Uemura H et al.. “Oxalate ions and calcium oxalate crystal-induced up-regulation of osteopontin and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in renal fibroblasts.” BJU international (2006). PMID: 16925768 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  84. [84]

    Boonla C, Krieglstein K, Bovornpadungkitti S et al.. “Fibrosis and evidence for epithelial-mesenchymal transition in the kidneys of patients with staghorn calculi.” BJU international (2011). PMID: 21410631 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation, Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  85. [85]

    Weinberg AE, Hazard FK, Hsieh MH. “A case of genitourinary Crohn's disease.” Urology (2012). PMID: 22999453 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  86. [86]

    Cochran D, Cook G, Rensing A et al.. “A Rare Case of T-Cell Lymphoma Presenting With Bilateral Nephrolithiasis and Acute Renal Failure.” Urology (2020). PMID: 32592766 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  87. [87]

    Chang CP, Wang SS, Wen MC et al.. “Mucinous adenocarcinoma of the renal pelvis masquerading as xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis.” Urology (2013). PMID: 23622771 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  88. [88]

    Acar B, Inci Arikan F, Emeksiz S et al.. “Risk factors for nephrolithiasis in children.” World journal of urology (2008). PMID: 18810456 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  89. [89]

    Martínez-Quintana E, Rodríguez-González F. “Crystalluria in adolescent and adult patients with congenital heart disease.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 37552266 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  90. [90]

    Giulioni C, Castellani D, Somani BK et al.. “The efficacy of retrograde intra-renal surgery (RIRS) for lower pole stones: results from 2946 patients.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 36930255 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  91. [91]

    Ortolini M, Breu B, Masnada A et al.. “Prolonged preoperative double J stenting increases post-ureteroscopy infectious complications.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41160126 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  92. [92]

    Jahrreiss V, Yurdakul O, Veser J et al.. “Effect of parathyroidectomy on stone recurrence in primary hyperparathyroidism : A systematic review.” Wiener klinische Wochenschrift (2026). PMID: 41874646 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, History and Evolution of Treatment
  93. [93]

    Hansen NF, Khizir L, Lay AH et al.. “Real-world efficacy and safety of the CVAC 2.0 ureteroscope: results from a single-center retrospective study.” Urolithiasis (2026). PMID: 42417984 ↗

    L4COHORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  94. [94]

    Manfredi G, Turisani A, Piasentier A et al.. “A Case of Tumor-Induced Osteomalacia Masked by Parathyroid Carcinoma.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 42279228 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  95. [95]

    Della Valentina S, Pierotti L, Sardella C et al.. “Clinical and genetic insights into Autosomal Dominant Hypocalcemia type 1: a single-center case series including genotype-phenotype correlations, pregnancy outcomes, and novel CASR variants.” Journal of endocrinological investigation (2026). PMID: 42223909 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  96. [96]

    Bey A. “Primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy successfully treated with microwave ablation: a case report.” Frontiers in medicine (2026). PMID: 41657575 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  97. [97]

    Eid MT, de Mul A, Muresan-Vintila L et al.. “Enamel renal syndrome due to FAM20A mutations: challenging kidney management in view of nephrocalcinosis, hypophosphatemia and hypocalciuria.” Orphanet journal of rare diseases (2026). PMID: 41645214 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  98. [98]

    De Coninck V, Keller EX, Rodríguez-Monsalve M et al.. “Systematic review of ureteral access sheaths: facts and myths.” BJU international (2018). PMID: 29752769 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  99. [99]

    Dingwall A, Leighton J, Luk A et al.. “Ureteroscopy and lasertripsy for lower pole stones <2 cm, in situ vs displacement? A systematic review and meta-analysis.” BJU international (2024). PMID: 39400510 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  100. [100]

    Wang HS, Panagides J, Cahill D et al.. “Dietary Risk Factors for Pediatric Kidney Stones: A Case-Control Study.” The Journal of urology (2022). PMID: 35377774 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  101. [101]

    Li Y, Yao Z, Zhou Z et al.. “Efficacy and safety of retrograde intrarenal surgery with a flexible and navigable suction sheath (FANS-RIRS) versus mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy (mPCNL) for 2-3 cm renal stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 41817775 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Prognosis & Natural History
  102. [102]

    Krajewski W, Nowak Ł, Tomczak W et al.. “Feasibility and safety of 6.3 Fr vs. 7.5 Fr digital disposable ureteroscopes in retrograde intrarenal surgery: a prospective randomised trial.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 40853384 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Complications
  103. [103]

    Saglam R, Muslumanoglu AY, Tokatlı Z et al.. “A new robot for flexible ureteroscopy: development and early clinical results (IDEAL stage 1-2b).” European urology (2014). PMID: 25059998 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  104. [104]

    Chen TT, Wang C, Ferrandino MN et al.. “Radiation Exposure during the Evaluation and Management of Nephrolithiasis.” The Journal of urology (2015). PMID: 26055822 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  105. [105]

    Torricelli FC, De SK, Gebreselassie S et al.. “Dyslipidemia and kidney stone risk.” The Journal of urology (2013). PMID: 24055417 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup
  106. [106]

    Ganesan V, De S, Greene D et al.. “Accuracy of ultrasonography for renal stone detection and size determination: is it good enough for management decisions?” BJU international (2016). PMID: 27459091 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup
  107. [107]

    Iremashvili V, Li S, Best SL et al.. “Clinical and demographic predictors of repeat stone surgery.” BJU international (2019). PMID: 31166648 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  108. [108]

    Patel RM, Walia AS, Grohs E et al.. “Effect of positioning on ureteric stone retropulsion: 'gravity works'.” BJU international (2018). PMID: 30098120 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  109. [109]

    Karim Z, Gérard B, Bakouh N et al.. “NHERF1 mutations and responsiveness of renal parathyroid hormone.” The New England journal of medicine (2008). PMID: 18784102 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup
  110. [110]

    Setthawong V, Srisubat A, Potisat S et al.. “Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) versus percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) or retrograde intrarenal surgery (RIRS) for kidney stones.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2023). PMID: 37526261 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  111. [111]

    Terro K, Vanthoor J, Wiseman O. “Evaluation of outcomes in kidney stone management: stone-free rate vs. cost vs. quality of life: a systematic review from EAU endourology.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 42001348 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  112. [112]

    Machado Filho C, Lepine HL, Lima MCMDS et al.. “One Session or Two? A Meta-Analysis of Same-Session Versus Staged Bilateral Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy.” Journal of endourology (2026). PMID: 41810589 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  113. [113]

    Rapoport MJ, Sadah AY. “Gas-containing renal stones.” Urology (2006). PMID: 17070381 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis & Workup
  114. [114]

    Schulz AE, Green BW, Gupta K et al.. “Management of large kidney stones in the geriatric population.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 36856833 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  115. [115]

    Kroczak T, Scotland KB, Chew B et al.. “Shockwave lithotripsy: techniques for improving outcomes.” World journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28608191 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis & Workup, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  116. [116]

    Patel RM, Jefferson FA, Owyong M et al.. “Characterization of intracalyceal pressure during ureteroscopy.” World journal of urology (2020). PMID: 32462302 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Diagnosis & Workup
  117. [117]

    Sur RL, Krambeck AE, Large T et al.. “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Preoperative Prophylactic Antibiotics for Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy in Moderate to High Infectious Risk Population: A Report from the EDGE Consortium.” The Journal of urology (2020). PMID: 33369488 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  118. [118]

    Wong C, Xu P, Dean N et al.. “A prospective survey evaluating the visual quality of KARL STORZ fiberoptic, digital, and disposable flexible ureteroscopes.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 39937281 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  119. [119]

    La Rochelle JC, Coogan CL. “Urological manifestations of sarcoidosis.” The Journal of urology (2011). PMID: 22088341 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  120. [120]

    DeFoor W, Jackson E, Schulte M et al.. “Calcium-to-Citrate Ratio Distinguishes Solitary and Recurrent Urinary Stone Forming Children.” The Journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28365270 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  121. [121]

    Scheidt MJ, Hohenwalter EJ, Pinchot JW et al.. “ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Radiologic Management of Urinary Tract Obstruction.” Journal of the American College of Radiology : JACR (2020). PMID: 32370972 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  122. [122]

    Dillman JR, Rigsby CK, Iyer RS et al.. “ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Hematuria-Child.” Journal of the American College of Radiology : JACR (2018). PMID: 29724430 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  123. [123]

    Qaseem A, Dallas P, Forciea MA et al.. “Dietary and pharmacologic management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians.” Annals of internal medicine (2014). PMID: 25364887 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  124. [124]

    Chappidi MR, Kates M, Tosoian JJ et al.. “Evaluation of gender-based disparities in time from initial haematuria presentation to upper tract urothelial carcinoma diagnosis: analysis of a nationwide insurance claims database.” BJU international (2017). PMID: 28418183 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  125. [125]

    Zieber L, Creiderman G, Krenawi M et al.. “A nomogram to predict "pure" vs. "mixed" uric acid urinary stones.” World journal of urology (2024). PMID: 39480595 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  126. [126]

    Bajaj M, Yuan L, Holmes LC et al.. “Predictors of surgical intervention following initial surveillance for acute ureteric colic.” World journal of urology (2018). PMID: 29600333 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  127. [127]

    Golomb D, Confino I, Avda Y et al.. “Predictive value of family history of kidney stones for metabolic abnormalities and stone composition.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 42360497 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification
  128. [128]

    Reisiger K, Vardi I, Yan Y et al.. “Pediatric nephrolithiasis: does treatment affect renal growth?” Urology (2007). PMID: 17572213 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging & Risk Stratification, Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  129. [129]

    Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.. “Surgical Management of Stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society Guideline, PART I.” The Journal of urology (2016). PMID: 27238616 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  130. [130]

    Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.. “Surgical Management of Stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society Guideline, PART II.” The Journal of urology (2016). PMID: 27238615 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Acute Management & Decompression, History and Evolution of Treatment, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  131. [131]

    Metzler IS, Smith-Bindman R, Moghadassi M et al.. “Emergency Department Imaging Modality Effect on Surgical Management of Nephrolithiasis: A Multicenter, Randomized Clinical Trial.” The Journal of urology (2016). PMID: 27773846 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  132. [132]

    Demasi M, Segall M, Mengotto A et al.. “Optimizing pain management following kidney stone surgery: can we avoid narcotics?” World journal of urology (2022). PMID: 36371742 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Acute Management & Decompression, History and Evolution of Treatment
  133. [133]

    Barghouthy Y, Wiseman O, Ventimiglia E et al.. “Silicone-hydrocoated ureteral stents encrustation and biofilm formation after 3-week dwell time: results of a prospective randomized multicenter clinical study.” World journal of urology (2021). PMID: 33688992 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  134. [134]

    Alexander CE, Gowland S, Cadwallader J et al.. “Shock wave lithotripsy (SWL): outcomes from a national SWL database in New Zealand.” BJU international (2016). PMID: 26923107 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  135. [135]

    Berger I, Wildhofen S, Lee A et al.. “Emergency nephrectomy due to severe urosepsis: a retrospective, multicentre analysis of 65 cases.” BJU international (2009). PMID: 19338556 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  136. [136]

    Asher GN, Viprakasit DP, Aymes SE et al.. “Prevention of Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults and Children : A Systematic Review.” Annals of internal medicine (2026). PMID: 41871357 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  137. [137]

    Balen F, Cideron C, Noizet M et al.. “Predicting surgery within one week of emergency department presentation for renal colic using the CLAD-MB score: A prospective cohort study.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 41175442 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Acute Management & Decompression, History and Evolution of Treatment
  138. [138]

    Wollin DA, Joyce AD, Gupta M et al.. “Antibiotic use and the prevention and management of infectious complications in stone disease.” World journal of urology (2017). PMID: 28160088 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  139. [139]

    Eredics K, Drerup M, Özsoy M et al.. “Active stone removal is a safe option for ocotogenarians and nonagenarians with nephrolithiasis.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 36754879 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  140. [140]

    Ansari MI, Khan SA, Thakur DK et al.. “Comparative efficacy of pre-stented versus non-stented retrograde intrarenal surgery: A randomized controlled trial.” Medicine (2025). PMID: 40441236 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  141. [141]

    Dai JC, Nicholson TM, Chang HC et al.. “Nephrolithiasis in Pregnancy: Treating for Two.” Urology (2020). PMID: 32866511 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  142. [142]

    Roth JD, Pariser JJ, Stout TE et al.. “Presentation and Management Patterns of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms in Adults Due to Rare Inherited Neuromuscular Diseases.” Urology (2019). PMID: 31626855 ↗

    L4REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  143. [143]

    Raskolnikov D, Hall MK, Ngo SD et al.. “Strategies to Optimize Nephrolithiasis Emergency Care (STONE): Prospective Evaluation of an Emergency Department Clinical Pathway.” Urology (2021). PMID: 34757049 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  144. [144]

    Hsiang WR, Yousman L, Kim D et al.. “Access to Urologic Care at Urgent Care Centers.” Urology (2021). PMID: 34181971 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  145. [145]

    DeWitt-Foy ME, Gao T, Schold J et al.. “Stones and Moans: Higher Number of Nephrolithiasis Related Encounters Increases the Odds of Opioid Misuse.” Urology (2021). PMID: 34653430 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  146. [146]

    Ziemba JB, Jones A, Lin G et al.. “Postoperative Recovery of Quality-of-Life Following Ureteroscopy for Nephrolithiasis: The Impact on Pain Intensity and Interference and the Ability to Participate in Social Roles.” Urology (2024). PMID: 38508532 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression
  147. [147]

    Lyon M, Sun A, Shah A et al.. “Comparison of Radiation Exposure for Pregnant Patients Requiring Intervention for Suspected Obstructing Nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2023). PMID: 37783398 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Acute Management & Decompression, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  148. [148]

    Dean NS, Millan B, Uy M et al.. “Ureteral Wall Thickness Is an Effective Predictor of Ureteral Stone Impaction and Management Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” The Journal of urology (2023). PMID: 37232694 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Prognosis & Natural History
  149. [149]

    Leder BZ, Tsai JN, Uihlein AV et al.. “Denosumab and teriparatide transitions in postmenopausal osteoporosis (the DATA-Switch study): extension of a randomised controlled trial.” Lancet (London, England) (2015). PMID: 26144908 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment
  150. [150]

    Baldea KG, Patel PM, Delos Santos G et al.. “Paravertebral block for percutaneous nephrolithotomy: a prospective, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study.” World journal of urology (2020). PMID: 31982963 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  151. [151]

    Higazy A, Kandil M, Elshafei A et al.. “Flexible mini-percutaneous nephrolithotomy versus retrograde intra-renal surgery in the management of renal stones: a randomized controlled trial.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 40418257 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  152. [152]

    El-Shaer W, Kandeel W, Abdel-Lateef S et al.. “Complete Ultrasound-guided Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy in Prone and Supine Positions: A Randomized Controlled Study.” Urology (2019). PMID: 30902696 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment
  153. [153]

    Davis NF, Quinlan MR, Poyet C et al.. “Miniaturised percutaneous nephrolithotomy versus flexible ureteropyeloscopy: a systematic review and meta-analysis comparing clinical efficacy and safety profile.” World journal of urology (2018). PMID: 29450733 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Prognosis & Natural History
  154. [154]

    Talyshinskii A, Juliebø-Jones P, Tzelves L et al.. “Current state of AI for shockwave lithotripsy: a systematic review from YAU and EAU endourology.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 40643681 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  155. [155]

    Zilberman DE, Lipkin ME, de la Rosette JJ et al.. “Tubeless percutaneous nephrolithotomy--the new standard of care?” The Journal of urology (2010). PMID: 20723920 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  156. [156]

    DiBianco JM, Daignault-Newton S, Fernandez Moncaleano G et al.. “Ureteroscopy vs Shock Wave Lithotripsy for Lower Pole Renal Stones: Treatment Variation and Outcomes in a Surgical Collaborative.” The Journal of urology (2025). PMID: 40489579 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical
  157. [157]

    Bloom J, Matthews G, Phillips J. “Factors Influencing Readmission after Elective Ureteroscopy.” The Journal of urology (2015). PMID: 26602889 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  158. [158]

    Smaldone MC, Corcoran AT, Docimo SG et al.. “Endourological management of pediatric stone disease: present status.” The Journal of urology (2008). PMID: 19012920 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  159. [159]

    Ziemba JB, Matlaga BR. “Guideline of guidelines: kidney stones.” BJU international (2015). PMID: 25684222 ↗

    L1OTHERCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  160. [160]

    Ganpule A, Chhabra JS, Kore V et al.. “Factors predicting outcomes of micropercutaneous nephrolithotomy: results from a large single-centre experience.” BJU international (2015). PMID: 26331966 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  161. [161]

    Randell RL, Maharaj A, Laughon M et al.. “Population Pharmacokinetics and Exposure-Safety Analysis of Furosemide in Preterm Infants.” Journal of clinical pharmacology (2026). PMID: 42003090 ↗

    L2RCTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  162. [162]

    Talyshinskii A, Khairley G, Tur AB et al.. “Role of pediatric ureteroscopy for large renal stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis from EAU endourology.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41176750 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, Complications, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  163. [163]

    Jung M, Rai A, Wang L et al.. “Nephrolithiasis in a 17-Year-Old Male With Seckel Syndrome and Horseshoe Kidneys: Case Report and Review of the Literature.” Urology (2018). PMID: 29894776 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Long-term & Definitive Management: Medical vs Endourologic/Surgical, History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  164. [164]

    Pearle MS, Goldfarb DS, Assimos DG et al.. “Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline.” The Journal of urology (2014). PMID: 24857648 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  165. [165]

    Fink HA, Akornor JW, Garimella PS et al.. “Diet, fluid, or supplements for secondary prevention of nephrolithiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials.” European urology (2009). PMID: 19321253 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  166. [166]

    Brain E, Geraghty RM, Lovegrove CE et al.. “Natural History of Post-Treatment Kidney Stone Fragments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The Journal of urology (2021). PMID: 33904756 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis & Natural History
  167. [167]

    Williams JJ, Rodman JS, Peterson CM. “A randomized double-blind study of acetohydroxamic acid in struvite nephrolithiasis.” The New England journal of medicine (1984). PMID: 6472365 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  168. [168]

    Lu P, Chen K, Wang Z et al.. “Clinical efficacy and safety of flexible ureteroscopic lithotripsy using 365 μm holmium laser for nephrolithiasis: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial.” World journal of urology (2019). PMID: 31030229 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  169. [169]

    Ozkaya O, Söylemezoğlu O, Misirlioğlu M et al.. “Polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor gene and the risk of calcium nephrolithiasis in children.” European urology (2003). PMID: 12814692 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  170. [170]

    Pagano F, Tasca A, Oliva G. “The evolution of renal function after surgical treatment of malignant lithiasis with severely compromised renal function.” European urology (1982). PMID: 7060603 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  171. [171]

    Donsimoni R, Hennequin C, Fellahi S et al.. “New aspects of urolithiasis in France. GERBAP: Groupe d'Evaluation et de Recherche des Biologistes de l'Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris.” European urology (1997). PMID: 9032529 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  172. [172]

    Taylor EN, Chan AT, Giovannucci EL et al.. “Cholelithiasis and the risk of nephrolithiasis.” The Journal of urology (2011). PMID: 21944091 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  173. [173]

    Krautschick A, Esen T. “The role of the papilla in idiopathic calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis.” World journal of urology (1997). PMID: 9280049 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  174. [174]

    Srirangapatanam S, Wiener S, Stoller ML. “Role of core body temperature in nephrolithiasis.” BJU international (2020). PMID: 32750202 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  175. [175]

    Parr JM, Desai D, Winkle D. “Natural history and quality of life in patients with cystine urolithiasis: a single centre study.” BJU international (2015). PMID: 26204884 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  176. [176]

    Penniston KL, Jones AN, Nakada SY et al.. “Vitamin D repletion does not alter urinary calcium excretion in healthy postmenopausal women.” BJU international (2009). PMID: 19389005 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  177. [177]

    Baggio B, Gambaro G, Marchini F et al.. “An inheritable anomaly of red-cell oxalate transport in "primary" calcium nephrolithiasis correctable with diuretics.” The New England journal of medicine (1986). PMID: 3945245 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  178. [178]

    Husmann DA, Pappas TN, Preminger GM. “Nephrolithiasis on the National Stage: The Kidney Stones of President Lyndon B. Johnson.” Urology (2024). PMID: 39293672 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  179. [179]

    Bhan A, Simon R, Yaseen A et al.. “The predictive value of 24-hour urinary calcium for kidney stone risk in primary hyperparathyroidism: insight from a retrospective study of parathyroid adenoma cases.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). PMID: 41377934 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  180. [180]

    Lieske JC, Groothoff JW, Frishberg Y et al.. “Natural History of Advanced Primary Hyperoxaluria Type 1: A Retrospective Study.” Kidney medicine (2025). PMID: 41209157 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  181. [181]

    Qi H, Chen H, Dalbeth N et al.. “Two-decade trajectories of gout: a multicentre cohort study of 10 658 Chinese patients with gout.” Rheumatology (Oxford, England) (2026). PMID: 41137675 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  182. [182]

    Liu N, Feng Y, Li J et al.. “Relationship between the dietary inflammatory index and kidney stone prevalence.” World journal of urology (2022). PMID: 35396944 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  183. [183]

    Green BW, Labagnara K, Macdonald E et al.. “Evaluating the association between food insecurity and risk of nephrolithiasis: an analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.” World journal of urology (2022). PMID: 36125503 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  184. [184]

    Ricapito A, Gupta K, Zipkin J et al.. “Comparison of metabolic parameters between pure-uric acid and mixed-uric acid kidney stone formers.” World journal of urology (2024). PMID: 38478092 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  185. [185]

    Cotta BH, Nguyen V, Sur RL et al.. “Opiates prescribed for acute renal colic are associated with prolonged use.” World journal of urology (2020). PMID: 32740804 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  186. [186]

    Liu CJ, Li WH, Li CH et al.. “Nephrolithiasis is associated with the severity of coronary artery calcification, but not with coronary artery stenosis.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 37284843 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  187. [187]

    Gridley CM, Sourial MW, Lehman A et al.. “Medical dissolution therapy for the treatment of uric acid nephrolithiasis.” World journal of urology (2019). PMID: 30810833 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  188. [188]

    Ganesan C, Frassetto L, Pao AC. “Nephrolithiasis: A Paleolithic Perspective and Physiological Approach to Prevention.” Annual review of medicine (2026). PMID: 41592925 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  189. [189]

    Bacchetta J, Acquaviva-Bourdain C, Abid N et al.. “Primary hyperoxaluria(s): from trials to real-life data and pipeline therapies.” Kidney international (2026). PMID: 41579959 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  190. [190]

    Abukhalil M, Mehjez O, Aladdam M et al.. “The radiological evaluation process of the potential live kidney donor assessment programme at al-Shifa Hospital: study and clinical audit.” Lancet (London, England) (2018). PMID: 29553430 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  191. [191]

    Moon H, Kim YC, Park HC et al.. “Association between nephrolithiasis and kidney disease progression in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study.” Clinical kidney journal (2026). PMID: 42428517 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  192. [192]

    Wymer KM, Boddu SP, Choudry M et al.. “Access to Care and Health Care Utilization Among Patients With Nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2024). PMID: 38432429 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  193. [193]

    Burns ZR, Sawyer KN, Selph JP. “Appendiceal Interposition for Ureteral Stricture Disease: Technique and Surgical Outcomes.” Urology (2020). PMID: 32961223 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations, Complications
  194. [194]

    Miernik A, Wilhelm K, Ardelt PU et al.. “Standardized flexible ureteroscopic technique to improve stone-free rates.” Urology (2012). PMID: 23206763 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Endoscopic & Procedural Technique Considerations
  195. [195]

    Oliveira AV, Sampaio ALN, Mascarenhas RW et al.. “Thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics for kidney stones recurrence: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41396435 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Complications, Prognosis & Natural History, Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  196. [196]

    Andrade MA, Godinho NJS, de Amorim LGCR et al.. “Single-session bilateral vs. staged unilateral renal stone removal: comparative outcomes in a systematic review and meta-analysis.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41021030 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Complications
  197. [197]

    Garbens A, Pearle MS. “Causes and prevention of kidney stones: separating myth from fact.” BJU international (2021). PMID: 34192414 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  198. [198]

    Worcester EM, Coe FL, Evan AP et al.. “Reduced renal function and benefits of treatment in cystinuria vs other forms of nephrolithiasis.” BJU international (2006). PMID: 16686727 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications
  199. [199]

    Yang JYC, Sarwal RD, Ky K et al.. “Non-radiological assessment of kidney stones using the kidney injury test (KIT), a spot urine assay.” BJU international (2020). PMID: 31869527 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications
  200. [200]

    Sui W, Yang H, Velasquez MC et al.. “Re-defining the interpretation of 24-h urine studies for stone formers.” BJU international (2025). PMID: 39846125 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications
  201. [201]

    Freise J, Nunez M, Chi T et al.. “Therapeutic Living Donor Nephrectomy for Proximal Ureteral Pathology: A Longitudinal Case Series.” Urology (2022). PMID: 35550384 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  202. [202]

    Svihra J, Sopilko I, Blichova T et al.. “The comparison of synchronous bilateral and unilateral percutaneous nephrolithotomy: Meta-analysis.” Central European journal of urology (2026). PMID: 42375725 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Complications
  203. [203]

    Sui W, Hancock J, Asplin JR et al.. “Nephrolithiasis and Elevated Urinary Ammonium: A Matched Comparative Study.” Urology (2020). PMID: 32544550 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications, Prognosis & Natural History
  204. [204]

    Turner EN, Talwar R, Familusi OO et al.. “Race/Ethnicity and Insurance's Impact on Delays to Kidney Stone Surgery Scheduling.” Urology (2022). PMID: 35469809 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications
  205. [205]

    Anderson A, Singh JA. “Pegloticase for chronic gout.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2010). PMID: 20238366 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis & Natural History
  206. [206]

    Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D et al.. “Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2011). PMID: 21735411 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  207. [207]

    Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D et al.. “Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of cancer in adults.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2014). PMID: 24953955 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  208. [208]

    Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D et al.. “Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2014). PMID: 24414552 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  209. [209]

    Bevill M, Kattula A, Cooper CS et al.. “The Modern Metabolic Stone Evaluation in Children.” Urology (2016). PMID: 27838366 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Prognosis & Natural History, Special Populations & Pregnancy
  210. [210]

    Simsekoglu MF, Ozman O, Sahin MF et al.. “Outcomes of retrograde intrarenal surgery in patients on anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy: a multicenter matched case-control study by the RIRSearch Study Group.” World journal of urology (2025). PMID: 41148357 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  211. [211]

    Tong CMC, Bicknell BT, Ellison JS et al.. “Influence of a Prospective Multicenter Clinical Trial on Adherence to Imaging Acquisition and Office Visit Follow-Up After Kidney Stone Surgery: A Bi-Institutional Experience.” Journal of endourology (2026). PMID: 42051168 ↗

    L3TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  212. [212]

    Jha V, Venkateswarlu M, Shaharyar A et al.. “Thiazide therapy in chronic hypoparathyroidism: effects on hypercalciuria and renal function-a systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis.” Journal of endocrinological investigation (2026). PMID: 42287530 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  213. [213]

    Mazumder H, Gain EP, Shimul MH et al.. “Ambient Temperature and Risk of Renal Colic: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Kidney medicine (2025). PMID: 41531667 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  214. [214]

    Rosenberg E, Sergienko R, Abu-Ghanem S et al.. “Nephrolithiasis during pregnancy: characteristics, complications, and pregnancy outcome.” World journal of urology (2011). PMID: 21691721 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  215. [215]

    Khargi R, Blake RM, Yaghoubian AJ et al.. “Drivers of calcium oxalate stone formation in the octogenarian population.” World journal of urology (2023). PMID: 37847263 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  216. [216]

    Lee AS, McGarry L, Bowen DK et al.. “Patient Characteristics Associated With Completion of 24-hour Urine Analyses Among Children and Adolescents With Nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2019). PMID: 30796989 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  217. [217]

    Abedali ZA, Large T, Heiman JM et al.. “Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy in the 80 Years of Age and Older Population.” Urology (2019). PMID: 31536740 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Special Populations & Pregnancy
  218. [218]

    Lotan Y, Pearle MS. “Cost-effectiveness of primary prevention strategies for nephrolithiasis.” The Journal of urology (2011). PMID: 21683379 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  219. [219]

    Milose JC, Kaufman SR, Hollenbeck BK et al.. “Prevalence of 24-hour urine collection in high risk stone formers.” The Journal of urology (2013). PMID: 24018242 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  220. [220]

    Veronese N, Ciriminna S, Errera CM et al.. “Preventing and treating kidney stones: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of non-surgical randomized controlled trials.” Minerva urology and nephrology (2025). PMID: 40891477 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  221. [221]

    Porto BC, Terada BD, Gonçalves FG et al.. “Thiazide diuretics for preventing calcium oxalate recurrent kidney stones: an updated systematic review, meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials.” Minerva urology and nephrology (2025). PMID: 40528770 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  222. [222]

    Boissier R, Rodriguez-Faba O, Zakri RH et al.. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Interventions on Nephrolithiasis in Transplanted Kidney.” European urology focus (2022). PMID: 36567234 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  223. [223]

    Anagnostis P, Vaitsi K, Veneti S et al.. “Efficacy of parathyroidectomy compared with active surveillance in patients with mild asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled studies.” Journal of endocrinological investigation (2020). PMID: 33074457 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  224. [224]

    Sui W, Gupta L, Azzawi AS et al.. “The association between quality of life, intensity of counseling and health literacy amongst patients with nephrolithiasis.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 41843185 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  225. [225]

    Patel SR, Wells S, Ruma J et al.. “Automated volumetric assessment by noncontrast computed tomography in the surveillance of nephrolithiasis.” Urology (2012). PMID: 22578829 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance
  226. [226]

    Bernard J, Song L, Henderson B et al.. “Association Between Daily Water Intake and 24-hour Urine Volume Among Adolescents With Kidney Stones.” Urology (2020). PMID: 32004558 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Prevention, Screening & Surveillance

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…