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Surgery›Condition·Updated Apr 17, 2026·v1

Appendicitis

Acute appendicitis is the most frequent cause of the acute abdomen requiring surgery. Diagnosis relies on a combination of clinical signs (migratory pain, McBurney's tenderness) and cross-sectional imaging, with CT being the gold standard for adults and Ultrasound for children. While laparoscopic appendectomy is the primary treatment, selected uncomplicated cases may be managed with antibiotics. Special attention is required for the elderly and pregnant patients due to atypical presentations and higher complication risks.

High Evidence94 references·360 words·2 min read·v1
General SurgeryAcute AbdomenAppendectomyPediatric SurgeryEmergency Medicine
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Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceErtapenem 1 g IV daily or Ceftriaxone 1-2 g IV + Metronidazole 500 mg IV
AltAlternativesCefoxitin 2 g IV every 6 hours; Piperacillin/Tazobactam 3.375 g IV every 6 hours (for severe/complicated cases)
⊘AvoidAvoid laxatives or enemas in suspected appendicitis (risk of perforation); avoid gadolinium-based MRI contrast in pregnancy.
DxTest of choiceContrast-enhanced CT (Adults); Ultrasound (Children/Pregnancy)
ScKey scoreAlvarado Score or Appendicitis Inflammatory Response (AIR) Score
→When to referRefer to General Surgery immediately upon clinical suspicion or positive imaging findings.
Appendicitis is a surgical emergency where early diagnosis via imaging (CT or US) and laparoscopic intervention are key to preventing perforation and sepsis.
Acute appendicitis is the most common non-obstetric surgical emergency worldwide, characterized by the inflammation of the vermiform appendix. The condition typically results from a closed-loop obstruction of the appendiceal lumen, often by a fecalith or lymphoid hyperplasia, leading to increased intraluminal pressure, ischemia, and potential perforation. While the classic presentation involves migratory pain from the periumbilical region to the right lower quadrant, clinical manifestations vary significantly across different age groups and anatomical variants.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Recognize acute appendicitis as a progressive inflammatory process that begins with luminal obstruction, leading to mucus accumulation, bacterial overgrowth, and a rapid rise in intraluminal pressure. This mechanical distension triggers visceral afferent fibers in the T10 distribution, explaining the initial periumbilical pain.
  • •Identify common triggers for obstruction, including fecaliths, lymphoid hyperplasia (often following viral infections), and rare causes such as Appendico-Ileal Knotting (AIK)—also known as appendiceal tourniquet syndrome—where the appendix encircles the ileum.
  • •Consider genetic and systemic predispositions, such as , where thick viscid mucus increases the risk of impaction, or , which can involve the appendix through transmural inflammation.
  • •Understand the molecular progression where ischemia-modified albumin (IMA) serves as a marker for tissue necrosis; as intraluminal pressure exceeds venous pressure, venous and lymphatic drainage are impaired, eventually leading to arterial compromise and gangrene.
  • •Differentiate between simple (uncomplicated) appendicitis and complicated variants, which include perforation, phlegmon, or abscess formation, often seen in patients with delayed presentation or those at extremes of age.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect acute appendicitis in any patient presenting with new-onset abdominal pain, particularly if it follows the classic migratory pattern from the periumbilical area to the right lower quadrant (RLQ) over 12 to 48 hours.
  • •Ask about associated symptoms such as anorexia (the 'hamburger sign'), nausea, and vomiting, which typically occur after the onset of pain; the absence of anorexia should prompt consideration of alternative diagnoses.
  • •Examine the abdomen for localized tenderness at McBurney’s point (one-third the distance from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus) and assess for peritoneal signs like involuntary guarding and rebound tenderness.
  • •Perform specific maneuvers to localize the appendix: Rovsing’s sign (RLQ pain upon LLQ palpation), the Psoas sign (pain on hip extension suggesting a retrocecal appendix), and the Obturator sign (pain on internal rotation of the flexed hip suggesting a pelvic appendix).
  • •Utilize clinical risk stratification tools such as the or the Appendicitis Inflammatory Response (AIR) score to guide the necessity of imaging; patients with an Alvarado score < 4 are generally low risk.
  • •Order laboratory tests including a complete blood count (WBC count) and C-reactive protein (CRP); while non-specific, the combination of normal WBC and CRP has a high negative predictive value for appendicitis.
  • •Obtain a contrast-enhanced (CT) as the primary imaging modality in non-pregnant adults, as it provides superior visualization of the appendix and can identify alternative pathologies.
  • •Prioritize Ultrasound (US) as the first-line imaging modality in children and pregnant patients to avoid ionizing radiation; if US is inconclusive in these groups, proceed to MRI without gadolinium.
  • •Rule out mimics such as ectopic pregnancy (obtain a beta-hCG in all females of childbearing age), mesenteric adenitis, Meckel's diverticulitis, and which can involve the appendix and cause cyclical pain.
  • •Maintain a high index of suspicion for atypical presentations in the elderly (aged ≥65), who may present with vague symptoms and a 'quiet' abdomen despite advanced pathology or perforation.

Management

  • •Administer intravenous fluid resuscitation and keep the patient NPO (nothing by mouth) once the diagnosis is suspected or confirmed to prepare for potential surgical intervention.
  • •Perform laparoscopic appendectomy as the definitive gold standard treatment for both uncomplicated and complicated appendicitis, as it is associated with lower infection rates and faster recovery compared to open surgery.
  • •Initiate preoperative antibiotics to cover gram-negative and anaerobic organisms; for community-acquired mild-to-moderate cases, use Cefoxitin 2 g IV every 6 hours or Ertapenem 1 g IV daily.
  • •Utilize pediatric-specific antibiotic protocols for complicated cases: Ceftriaxone 50–80 mg/kg/day plus Metronidazole 30 mg/kg/day; if fever >38.5°C persists beyond 72 hours post-op, escalate to Piperacillin/Tazobactam 100 mg/kg every 8 hours.
  • •Consider non-operative management (NOM) with antibiotics alone for highly selected patients with uncomplicated appendicitis who wish to avoid surgery, but counsel them on the ~20-30% risk of recurrence within one year.
  • •Avoid NOM in patients with an appendicolith (calcified fecalith) visible on imaging, as this is associated with a high rate of antibiotic failure and rapid progression to perforation.
  • •Manage complicated appendicitis with a stable phlegmon or abscess (>3 cm) using initial NOM: administer IV antibiotics and arrange for percutaneous image-guided drainage rather than immediate surgery.
  • •Monitor for 'treatment-related fluctuation' or failure in NOM; if clinical status worsens or inflammatory markers rise despite antibiotics, proceed to urgent surgical intervention.
  • •Limit postoperative antibiotics to less than 24 hours for uncomplicated cases; for complicated cases with adequate source control, continue antibiotics for 4 to 7 days.
  • •Refer pregnant patients for immediate surgical consultation, as the risk of fetal loss and preterm labor increases significantly if the appendix perforates.
  • •Discharge patients when they are afebrile, tolerating a soft diet, and have adequate pain control with oral medications; routine post-discharge oral antibiotics are generally not required for uncomplicated cases.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •McBurney's Point — Located 1/3 the distance from the ASIS to the umbilicus; the site of maximal tenderness in classic appendicitis.
  • •Psoas Sign — Pain on passive extension of the right hip; indicates an inflamed appendix in the retrocecal position.
  • •Rovsing's Sign — Pain in the right lower quadrant elicited by palpation of the left lower quadrant; indicates peritoneal irritation.
  • •Appendicolith — A calcified fecalith seen on imaging; a strong predictor of failure for non-operative (antibiotic) management.
  • •Hamburger Sign — A clinical pearl where the patient's desire to eat their favorite food (e.g., a hamburger) makes appendicitis less likely (anorexia is highly sensitive).
  • •Subhepatic Appendicitis — A variant due to maldescent of the cecum; presents with RUQ pain mimicking cholecystitis.
  • •IMA (Ischemia-Modified Albumin) — A biochemical marker that rises during the ischemic phase of appendicitis before perforation occurs.
  • •Situs Inversus — A rare condition that can lead to left-sided appendicitis presentation.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

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